Self-Determination Theory: Explaining Motivation to Exercise

Post by Shireen Parimoo

Why do people exercise?

Exercise is a physical stressor for our bodies that can be painful, sometimes resulting in injuries, yet people still dance, run, go to the gym, and play sports. Surely, they must derive some benefit from exercise that justifies the temporary pain. What keeps them motivated? Some exercise to improve or maintain their physical and/or mental health, others use exercise as a form of stress relief, while others focus on improving their appearance or on achieving a particular goal. These reasons are not mutually exclusive, as someone could have an achievement-focused mindset in their sport yet also feel like it helps them cope with the stresses of daily life.

Motivation refers to the factors that drive us to perform a behavior, like exercising or playing sports. Motivation not only influences our ability to initiate a behavior or change in lifestyle but also determines how successfully we can maintain that change over time. In general, motivation can be intrinsic and based on the inherent enjoyment that comes from doing something, or extrinsic and guided by factors outside of the activity itself such as competition or social factors.

Where does motivation come from?

According to the self-determination theory, motivation lies along a continuum of autonomy, ranging from fully autonomous to controlled sources of motivation. Autonomous motivation can be both intrinsic and extrinsic, such as exercising for fun (intrinsic), or because the outcome is consistent with an individual’s self-concept (extrinsic – integrated regulation) or their personal values (extrinsic – identified regulation). For example, identified regulation of behavior occurs when someone starts running because they want to be physically fit and value leading a healthy lifestyle, even if they do not enjoy the act of running. Controlled motivation is largely extrinsic, like exercising to lose weight, to win a medal, or to avoid feelings of guilt associated with leading a sedentary lifestyle. The last example illustrates introjected regulation, in which someone feels pressured or obligated to exercise because of the environment they are in, even if they do not enjoy it.

Successfully adopting and maintaining an exercise program are distinct stages of change that rely on different sources of motivation. For example, both autonomous and controlled motivation might be sufficient for someone to start exercising, but those who are autonomously motivated are more likely to continue exercising long-term. Identified and integrated regulation in particular are more predictive of long-term adherence to an exercise program because they are centered around an individual’s personal beliefs and values, which heavily influence their lifestyle. On the other hand, controlled motivation is less likely to lead to long-term maintenance of exercise behavior and may even be associated with a lower sense of psychological well-being.

How can motivation be improved?

It is not easy to go from forming an intention to exercise to implementing that change – motivation is crucial. A large body of research suggests that autonomous motivation can be fostered when three basic psychological needs are met:

Autonomy: how much control someone believes they have over their behavior.

Competence: how successfully someone feels in their achievements at their chosen sport or exercise program.

Relatedness: how much someone feels connected with and/or supported by their social environment.

Each of these needs is met to varying degrees depending on the context and environment. Behavioral interventions that help address these psychological needs positively regulate autonomous motivation, which in turn leads to increased physical activity. Interventions focused on increasing the sense of autonomy and competence are most effective in facilitating behavior change. However, it is important to remember that interventions are typically not one-size-fits-all. For someone looking to start strength training, for instance, joining a local gym or fitness class might provide a consistent and supportive environment for exploration. Alternatively, others might benefit more in a one-on-one setting, like hiring a personal trainer.

On the contrary, not meeting these needs can be counterproductive. If a parent strongly pushes their teenager into joining the soccer team, for instance, the teenager may feel like they did not have any choice in the decision. If they also do not enjoy the sport, then they are less likely to continue playing. Similarly, setting unrealistic goals can lead to feelings of incompetence, which may lower someone’s motivation to continue exercising. Thus, although people might start to exercise for a wide variety of reasons, being mindful of their environmental and social context might help them effectively develop and maintain the habit.

Click to See References +

Conn et al. Interventions to increase physical activity among healthy adults: Meta-analysis of outcomes. American Journal of Public Health (2011).

Gillison et al. A meta-analysis of techniques to promote motivation for health behavior change from a self-determination theory perspective. Health Psychology Review (2019).

Knittle et al. How can interventions increase motivation for physical activity? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Health Psychology Review (2018).

Matsumoto & Takenaka. Relationship between basic psychological needs and exercise motivation in Japanese adults: An appraisal of self-determination theory. Japanese Psychological Research (2021).

Mehra et al. Aging and physical activity: A qualitative study of basic psychological needs and motivation in a blended home-based exercise program for older adults. In “Self-Determination Theory and Healthy Aging” (2020).

Ng et al. Self-determination theory applied to health contexts: A meta-analysis. Perspectives on Psychological Science (2012).

Ntoumanis et al. A meta-analysis of self-determination theory-informed intervention studies in the health domain: effects on motivation, health behavior, physical, and psychological health. Health Psychology Review (2021).

Olander et al. What are the most effective techniques in changing obese individuals’ physical activity self-efficacy and behavior: a systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity (2013).

Ryan & Deci. Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-bring. American Psychologist (2000).

Teixeira et al. Exercise, physical activity, and self-determination theory: A systematic review. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity (2012).

How Has COVID-19 Impacted Neuroscience Research?

Post by Anastasia Sares

Science interrupted

The effects of the pandemic have been felt in every sector of life across the globe since the beginning of 2020, and neuroscience research is no different. This week in Neuron, Joy Snider and David Holtzman—one a laboratory scientist and the other a clinical researcher—narrate their own experiences and the influence of the pandemic on their fields.

Empty labs, full screens

Most in-person data collection and lab work was quickly deemed “nonessential” and placed under heavy restrictions, slowing progress to a crawl. Longitudinal studies (where people come in multiple times to be tested) that were begun before the pandemic were often unable to stay on schedule, compromising their original plans and possibly leading to data loss. MRI studies were especially risky if the imaging facility was connected to a hospital where COVID patients were treated, so many of these were put on hold as well.

On the other hand, forcing talks and conferences to move online, often at a reduced cost of attendance, removed barriers to these events and increased scholarly communication. The increase in participation was sometimes two- to three-fold, and people from around the world were able to dialogue. In addition, for some people, the lack of daily distractions at the lab was exactly what they needed to do in-depth analyses or writing, and paper submissions rose substantially.

A changed future

The setbacks caused by the pandemic will change the course of research long after. In animal research, the death of animals with highly specific genetics means starting back at square one, setting projects back years. Human clinical and preclinical studies also take years to approve, set up, and administer— some may need to go through these processes again and could lose participants. Fewer volunteering opportunities, projects on hold, and school closures impact careers across the board but disproportionately affect students, early-career scientists, and parents of young children who had to switch to virtual schooling at home. However, despite these difficulties, the push for remote communication and even remote testing could reduce the cost of scientific activities. 

What’s the bottom line?

The pandemic certainly presented challenges to researchers that may take years to recover from. However, it also led to surprising benefits, like the democratization of scientific events and more efficient remote testing. This could mean permanent changes to the way we conduct research moving forward.

Snider & Holtzman. Effects of COVI9-19 on preclinical and clinical research in Neurology: Examples from research on neurodegeneration and Alzheimer’s disease. Neuron (2021). Access the original scientific publication here.

Breath, Mindfulness and Mental State

Post by Elisa Guma

Our first breath

Our first breath at birth marks one of the most profound changes in our physiology. We transition from having fluid-filled lungs in the womb to suddenly filling them with oxygen. Hormonal changes occurring during labor stimulate the removal of fluid from the lungs. Once the baby enters the world, the sensation of air on the skin as well as rising carbon dioxide levels signal to the brain that it's time to initiate breathing. As the baby’s lungs begin to fill with air, increased oxygen in their system stimulates the closure of blood vessels in the heart called the ductus arteriosus, which are important in the womb for diverting blood away from the lungs. After birth, breath continues to influence our physiology throughout our lifespan.

Neural control of respiration

The neural control of involuntary breathing occurs mainly in the brainstem. This is necessary for sustaining life when voluntary respiration is not possible, such as during sleep. The medulla oblongata sends signals to respiratory muscles to induce breathing, with one portion signaling expiratory movements (exhaling), and another stimulating inspiratory movements (inhaling). This structure is also responsible for coughing, sneezing, swallowing, and vomiting reflexes. The pons, situated just below the medulla, is responsible for controlling the rate of involuntary respiration. In contrast, voluntary respiration occurs under conscious control and is important for higher functions such as voice control. This type of breathing is controlled by the motor cortex, which sends signals via the spinal cord to activate the diaphragm and accessory muscles of respiration. This can be overridden by various limbic structures of the brain, such as the hypothalamus. For example, in periods of perceived danger or intense emotional stress, signals from the hypothalamus cause an increase in respiratory rate in order to facilitate the fight or flight response.

Breath and mindfulness

The practice of ‘pranayama’ is a core component of many ancient practices such as yoga, meditation, and tai chi. This involves focusing one’s attention on the breath in order to reach a more calm and meditative state. The practitioner aims to slow the rate of breathing and often synchronizes breath with steady movement, increasing the link between the internal body and external world. This type of breathing increases oxygen uptake and activates the parasympathetic nervous system (‘rest and digest’) to allow us to enter a more relaxed state. Additionally, it activates brain regions beyond the brainstem involved in emotion, attention, and body awareness.

In addition to focused breathing, many of the contemplative traditions discussed above focus on mindfulness. Mindfulness is defined as the basic human ability to be fully present, aware of where one is in space and what one is doing, without interpretation or judgement. Breathing techniques are often employed in order to achieve this state, so it may be difficult to disentangle the benefits of intentional breathing from those of mindfulness.

Possible health benefits

In recent decades there has been increased scientific interest in these mind-body practices and the proposed benefits on physical and mental health. When attention is drawn to the breath, breathing is slowed, and as one elongates their exhale, decreased heart rate, blood pressure, and even inflammation have been observed. Improvement in symptoms of depression, as well as reduced anxiety, stress, and chronic pain have also been reported. Further, mindfulness practice has been shown to improve emotional regulation and reduce stress. Some of these effects may be mediated by activation of fronto-limbic brain networks involved in attention control, emotion regulation, and self-awareness during mindfulness meditation. However, many of the underlying mechanisms of these benefits are still unclear.

The link between breath and mental state

The link between involuntary breathing mechanisms and our ability to use breath to regulate our mental state from aroused or frantic to calm and contemplative are slowly becoming clearer.  Recently, a small cluster of neurons in the brainstem, referred to as “respiratory pacemaker”, linking respiration to relaxation, attention, excitement, and anxiety has been identified. Within this cluster of neurons, termed the pre-Bötzinger complex, there are more than 60 different neuronal subtypes responsible for different aspects of breathing.

Leveraging genetic knockout technology in rodent models, the roles of many of these neuronal subpopulations have been identified. The most exciting discovery pertained to two specific subpopulations (identified by the presence of Gdh9 and Dbx1 genes) that, when eliminated from the brain, produced mice that were exceptionally calm in experimentally induced stressful situations, producing fewer fast or sniffing breaths and more slow breaths. However, researchers realized that rather than regulating breathing, these neurons were relaying information back to the locus coeruleus, a brain region that projects to almost every part of the brain, driving arousal and alertness, as well as anxiety and distress. This seminal study demonstrates that information about stress states is normally relayed from breathing centers to the rest of the brain and provides evidence for the relationship between breath and mental states. Importantly, this region identified in the mouse also exists in the human brain.

Another possible pathway for the connection between breath and mental state could be the vagus nerve. This cranial nerve can slow down heart rate through its direct projections to the heart and may also suppress inflammation by exerting control on the sleep and anti-inflammatory pathways in the body. This interesting pathway has received some attention recently but remains largely unexplored.  

What’s next?

Interestingly, ancient practitioners were well aware of the connection between breath and mental states, despite not understanding the underlying physiology. Over the last few decades, our scientific understanding of these mechanisms has significantly improved. However, future work is needed to better understand how the central and peripheral nervous systems modulate the changes in our physiology and mental states associated with breath and mindfulness. In turn, understanding how to leverage this practice to help individuals suffering from mental health crises will be beneficial, as it is free, non-invasive and easy to disseminate.

References

Tang YY et al., The neuroscience of mindfulness meditation. Nature Reviews. 2015. Access to the publication can be found here.

Zaccaro A et al., How Breath-Control Can Change Your Life: A Systematic Review on Psycho-Physiological Correlates of Slow Breathing. Frontiers in Neuroscience. 2018. Access to the publication can be found here

Shi Y et al., A brainstem peptide system activated at birth protects postnatal breathing. Nature. 2021. Access to the publication can be found here

Gerritsen RJS & Band GPH. Breath of Life: The Respiratory Vagal Stimulation Model of Contemplative Activity. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. Access to the publication can be found here.